A study of the epidemiology and socio-economic impact of anthrax in Luangwa Valley in Zambia

Anthrax is endemic in Luangwa National Park and the adjoining Game Management areas. The first official case of the disease was reported in 1922 in Luambe National Park. In 1987 a large-scale anthrax epidemic ravaged almost the entire Luangwa Valley. Since then at least three epidemics of the disease have been reported. Localised sporadic cases of the disease occur almost annually. Despite the frequent epidemics little is known of anthrax in terms of its epidemiology and impact on conservation. Mortalities were not investigated as wildlife officials attributed the mortalities to natural factors, animal population densities were not estimated and a no systematic disease surveillance programme exists. The number of animals that have died of the disease is not known. Anthrax mortalities are estimated in thousands. For example it is estimated that 4200 hippos and 1000 other animals, including five wild dogs, succumbed to the disease in 1987. No wild dog has been reported in the area since the 1987 epidemic. The objectives of this study were: # to describe the epidemiology and the socio-economic impact of anthrax in the Luangwa Valley ; # to examine the control measures adopted when epidemics occur; # to suggest alternative methods of dealing with disease outbreaks in the light of a quantitative risk and cost benefit analyses. Data was collected from reports was undertaken at the veterinary department, the wildlife offices and the national archives. Informal discussions were held with the local community on anthrax epidemics using the rapid rural appraisal technique. Data on animal demographics and rainfall were collected from National Parks and Wildlife Service and the National Meteorological Department. Soil, faeces, and bone samples were collected where large numbers of carcasses had been found during epidemics in the Luangwa National Park. These samples were examined for viable anthrax spores by the Department of Scientific Services in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Information gleaned from official and verbal reports were collated and are presented in tabular from. The information found is inadequate to enable comprehensive quantitative risk and cost/benefit analyses. The economic cost of the disease arises mainly from the trade embargo resulting from veterinary quarantine regulations and the value of animal carcasses. Different scenarios were developed and are examined to present a risk analysis for proposed alternative control measures that could be adopted by the veterinary department when anthrax occurs in the Luangwa Valley. The probability of spreading anthrax by allowing trade in game trophies after treatment with formalin is estimated to be 0.0003-0.5. Although the impact of the disease on the economic utilisation of wild herbivores and community based natural resource management in the area has never been investigated the potential cost of anthrax epidemics is significant. The estimated cost of anthrax epidemics, depending on the size, as a result of the current disease control strategy are 124,3 – 2079,5 million Zambian Kwacha. The proposed alternative disease control measures could decrease the cost to 43,5 – 852, 6 million Zambian Kwacha. It is suggested that various measures be adopted to enable a better understanding of the dynamics of anthrax in the Luangwa Valley. These include : # the establishment of a veterinary unit with in the park # improved surveillance and reporting of diseases # regular censuses and estimates of population densities within the Park # improved communication between the veterinary Department and the Wildlife Authority.Dissertation (MSc (Veterinary Tropical Diseases))--University of Pretoria, 2003.Veterinary Tropical Diseasesunrestricte

Detection of Parasites and Parasitic Infections of Free-Ranging Wildlife on a Game Ranch in Zambia: A Challenge for Disease Control

Ex-situ conservancies are expanding alternatives to livestock production in Zambia albeit the lack of information on circulating infectious parasites from wildlife. Therefore, 12 wildlife species were examined on a game ranch were all species were found to be infected by Rhipecephalus spp. Haemoparasite infections were estimated at 7.37% (n = 95) with Babesia spp. detected in bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus); Anaplasma marginale in impala (Aepyceros melampus) and puku (Kobus vardonii) for the first time in Zambia. The majority of worm species isolated from bovids were not detected in equids and, vice versa. Our findings intimate ecological and behavioural patterns of some animals as deterministic to exposure. Kafue lechwe (Kobus leche kafuensis) had the widest range of worm species with more infected organs than other animals suggesting their semi aquatic nature contributory to prolonged worm exposure compared to other animals. On the other hand, Kafue lechwe had the least tick infections attributable more to shorter attachment periods as they spend prolonged periods submerged in water. Our findings indicate the vital role that wildlife plays in the epidemiology of parasitic diseases. To reduce the infection burden, control measures should be focused on reducing transmission to highly susceptible animal species as described herein

Integration of Ecological and Socioeconomic Factors in Securing Wildlife Dispersal Corridors in the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area, Southern Africa

Transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs) are being established throughout southern Africa to integrating biodiversity conservation and rural development at the transboundary landscape scale. Among the nine TFCAs that have been established over the past 20 years, the Kavango-Zambezi (KAZA) TFCA) is the most grandiose in terms of size (≈ 520,000 Km2), number of partner countries involved (five), elephant (Loxodonta africana) population (≈ 199,031, which is the largest on the African continent), and encompasses 36 protected areas of various categories, interspaced by communal and private lands. The TFCA concept aims to ensure that key ecological processes continue to function where borders have divided ecosystems, and wildlife migration corridors. Attainment of this ecological objective is however being constrained by the anthropogenic threats, mostly poaching, and habitat fragmentation. These threats are being aggravated by the increasing human population, climate variability and underdeveloped rural livelihoods. To restore ecological processes, the following tactics have been recommended: (a) strengthening of transboundary law enforcement to effectively reduce poaching, and illegal offtake of timber; (b) establishment of “Stepping Stones” in the form of conservancies and fishing protected zones at wildlife crossing point on the major river systems; (c) reducing dependence on wood-fuel, and ensuring sustainable provision of affordable and reliable modern sources of energy; (d) adoption of the commodity-based trade standards in the production of beef for the export market to reduce the impact of veterinary fences on the dispersing wildlife; (e) implementation of early-season burning around all the sensitive biomes to protect them from the destructive late dry season fires; (f) adoption of conservation agriculture as a tool for improving land husbandry, intensification of agriculture, and decreasing the likelihood of cutting down forested areas to plant new agriculture fields; and (g) reducing the impact of climate variability on wildlife by providing artificial water – guided by environmental impact assessments. To enhance the socioeconomic development of the local communities and win them as allies in securing the wildlife dispersal corridors, the following actions should be adopted: (a) promotion of community-private partnerships in ecotourism development – alongside the establishment of a revolving loan fund to enable local communities’ access flexible source of capital for investment in ecotourism and auxiliary business opportunities; (b) promotion of biodiversity stewardship as an incentive for the local communities to commit their land to the sustenance of the wildlife dispersal corridors; (c) reducing human wildlife conflicts, through macro, meso and micro-level land-use planning to spatially delineate land committed to various categories, including protected areas, wildlife dispersal areas, and developed and communal areas; and (d) promotion of harmonised enabling policies and legislation to facilitate slowing down of human population growth, which is one of the prime triggers of habitat fragmentation in the KAZA TFCA

Sarcoptes mite epidemiology and treatment in African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) calves captured for translocation from the Kafue game management area to game ranches

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>In Zambia, translocation of wildlife from National Parks to private owned game ranches demands that only animals free of infectious diseases that could adversely affect the expansion of the wildlife industry should be translocated to game ranches. <it>Sarcoptes </it>mange (<it>Sarcoptes scarbiei</it>) has been involved in the reduction of wildlife populations in some species.</p> <p>Results</p> <p><it>Sarcoptes </it>mange (<it>Sarcoptes scarbiei</it>) was detected and eradicated from two herds of African buffalo (<it>Syncerus caffer</it>) calves captured in the Kafue GMA in July 2004 and August 2005. The overall prevalence was estimated at 89.5% (77/86). Sex had no influence on the occurrence and severity of the disease. Of the 86 calves used in the study, 72.1% had good body condition scores, 20.9% were fair and 7.0% were poor. Of the 77 infected calves, 53.2% were mildly infected, 28.6% were moderately and 18.2% were severely infected. Body condition score was correlated to the severity of the infection (r = 0.72, p < 0.000, <it>n </it>= 86) at capture. Eradication of <it>Sarcoptes </it>mites from the entire herd using ivermetcin was dependant on the severity of the infection. The overall ability of ivermectin to clear the infection after the first treatment was estimated at 81.8% (<it>n </it>= 77). It increased to 94.8% and 100% after the second and third treatments respectively.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>This is the first report on the epidemiology and treatment of <it>Sarcoptes </it>mange in African buffaloes in Zambia. This study improves our understanding about <it>Sarcoptes scabiei </it>epidemiology and treatment which will have further applications for the safe animal translocation.</p

Thelazia rhodesii in the African Buffalo, Syncerus caffer, in Zambia

We report 2 cases of Thelazia rhodesii infection in the African buffaloes, Syncerus caffer, in Zambia. African buffalo calves were captured from the livestock and wildlife interface area of the Kafue basin in the dry season of August 2005 for the purpose to translocate to game ranches. At capture, calves (n=48) were examined for the presence of eye infections by gently manipulating the orbital membranes to check for eye-worms in the conjunctival sacs and corneal surfaces. Two (4.3%) were infected and the mean infection burden per infected eye was 5.3 worms (n=3). The mean length of the worms was 16.4 mm (95% CI; 14.7-18.2 mm) and the diameter 0.41 mm (95% CI; 0.38-0.45 mm). The surface cuticle was made of transverse striations which gave the worms a characteristic serrated appearance. Although the calves showed signs of kerato-conjunctivitis, the major pathological change observed was corneal opacity. The calves were kept in quarantine and were examined thrice at 30 days interval. At each interval, they were treated with 200 µg/kg ivermectin, and then translocated to game ranches. Given that the disease has been reported in cattle and Kafue lechwe (Kobus lechwe kafuensis) in the area, there is a need for a comprehensive study which aims at determining the disease dynamics and transmission patterns of thelaziasis between wildlife and livestock in the Kafue basin

The contribution of veterinary medicine to public health and poverty reduction in developing countries

Few studies have explicitly examined the linkages between human health, animal disease control and poverty alleviation. This paper reviews the contribution that veterinary medicine can make to poverty alleviation in sub-Saharan Africa. Our analysis attempts to explore aspects of this contribution under five themes: food production; food safety; impact and control of zoonotic infections; promotion of ecotourism; and environmental protection. While these areas of human activity have, more or less, fallen under the influence of the veterinary profession to varying degrees, we attempt to unify this mandate using a ‘One Health’ narrative, for the purpose of providing clarity on the linkages between the veterinary and other professions, livestock production and poverty alleviation. Future opportunities for improving health and reducing poverty in the context of developing African countries are also discussed. We conclude that veterinary science is uniquely positioned to play a key role in both poverty reduction and the promotion of health, a role that can be enhanced through the reorientation of the profession’s goals and the creation of synergies with allied and related professions.Le relazioni tra salute umana, controllo delle patologie animali e programmi di riduzione della povertà raramente sono state oggetto di analisi. Questo articolo analizza il contributo che la medicina veterinaria può fornire ai processi di riduzione della povertà nell’Africa sub‑sahariana. In particolare, vengono analizzate le implicazioni della medicina veterinaria su: produzione di alimenti, igiene alimentare, impatto e controllo delle zoonosi, promozione di ecoturismo e protezione dell’ambiente. Lo studio ha l’obiettivo di riconsiderare questi aspetti sulla base dell’approccio “One Health” e di chiarire le relazioni che la professione veterinaria ha con le altre professioni, gli allevamenti animali e i programmi di riduzione della povertà. L’articolo esamina le opportunità future per migliorare le condizioni di salute e ridurre il sottosviluppo nei paesi africani, evidenziando il ruolo determinante delle scienze veterinarie. Ruolo che può essere ancor più potenziato attraverso la ridefinizione degli obiettivi professionali e la creazione di sinergie con le altre professioni.http://www.izs.it/vet_italiana/issues_vet_it.htmhb201

Detection of Babesia spp. in Free-Ranging Pukus, Kobus vardonii, on a Game Ranch in Zambia

Babesia spp. were detected from 4 asymptomatic pukus captured on a game ranch in central Zambia in October 2008. Blood smears were examined in 4 species of aymptomatic free-ranging antelopes, namely the puku (Kobus vordanii), reedbuck (Redunca arundinum), bushbuck (Tragelaphus sylvaticus), and kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), and showed the presence of Babesia parasites only in the puku. In the puku, the prevalence of babesiosis was estimated at 33.3% (n=12), while the overall prevalence in all examined animals was 8.5% (n=47). The parasites showed morphological characteristics of paired ring-like stages with the length varying between 1.61 µm and 3.02 µm (mean=2.12 µm, n=27; SD=0.76 µm). Both the infected and non-infected pukus showed good body condition scores (BCS), while the dominant tick species detected from all animals were Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, Rhipicephalus spp., and Boophilus spp. To our knowledge this is the first report of Babesia spp. infection in pukus in Zambia. These findings suggest that wildlife could play an important role in the epidemiology of babesiosis in Zambia

Investigating effects of parasite infection on body condition of the Kafue lechwe (Kobus leche kafuensis) in the Kafue basin

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>The Kafue lechwe (<it>Kobus leche Kafuensis</it>), a medium-sized semi-aquatic antelope, is endemic to the Kafue basin of Zambia. The population of the Kafue lechwe has significantly dropped in the last decades leading to its subsequent inclusion on the red list of endangered species. In order to save the remaining population from extinction, it has become increasingly important that the impact of parasite infection and infestation on the Kafue lechwe is investigated.</p> <p>Findings</p> <p>Endoparasites accounted for the majority of parasites observed from a study of 40 Kafue lechwe occurring in the the Kafue basin. <it>Amphistoma spp. </it>were present in all animals examined, while <it>Fasciola gigantica </it>had a prevalence rate of 0.525 (95% CI: 0.36 to 0.69) and species of <it>Schistosoma </it>0.3 (95% CI: 0.15 to 0.45). Among the ectoparasites, <it>Strobiloestrous vanzyli</it>, had a prevalence rate of 0.15 (95% CI: 0.03 to 0.27), while <it>Rhipicephalus appendiculatus </it>had a prevalence of 0.075 (3/40). Our findings indicate that body condition was not influenced by the parasitic infestation in Kafue lechwe. There was no association between sex and parasitic burden (odds ratio = 0.3, 95% CI: 0.8-1.3). However, an association between age and parasitic burden was observed as older animals above 15 years were more likely to get parasite infections than those aged between 1-5 years (odds ratio = 1.5, 95% CI: 1.1-2.4).</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Overall, there was no evidence that parasitic infections and infestations adversely affected the lechwe population on the Kafue basin. These findings indicate that ecto- and endo-parasite infestation might not play a significant role in reducing the Kafue lechwe population on the Kafue basin.</p

Monitoring the endangered population of the antelope Kobus leche smithemani (Artiodactyla: Bovidae), in the Bangweulu ecosystem, Zambia

Black lechwe (Kobus leche smithemani) is a semi-aquatic medium sized antelope currently enlisted on the IUCN red list of endangered species and is only endemic to the Bangweulu basin of Zambia. Its population has significantly decreased due to floods that took place during the period 1930-1940 from over 250 000-15 000 leading the Zambian government to gazette all habitats of Black lechwe into state protected areas, and to establish urgent management strategies needed to save the remaining population from extinction. Using retrospective data, our findings show that the population has increased from 15 000 animals in 1954 to 55 632 in 2009. The current population is estimated at 34.77% (55 632/160 000) of the carrying capacity of the Bangweulu basin. Although the Black lechwe is one of the 42 species offered for consumptive utilization by the Zambia Wildlife Authority (ZAWA), only 0.12% and 0.08% of the current stock was offered for safari and resident hunting annually for the period 2005-2009, respectively. Annual quota utilization were estimated at 67% (n=37) and 81% (n=37) for safari and resident hunting, respectively. Hence, overall income obtained from utilization of Black lechwe is very low accounting for only 2.1% of the total revenue earned from wildlife utilization. Although the current population trend is showing a unit increase of 639 animals per year, it is still far below levels ideal for the lucrative utilization. In this study, we demonstrate that adverse ecological changes on wildlife species, can lead to their vulnerability and danger of extinction, and that their recovery to full carrying capacity may demand a considerable amount of tim

Disease constraints for utilization of the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) on game ranches in Zambia

Eco-tourism depending on wildlife is becoming increasingly profitable and landowners are beginning to favor game farming and ecotourism. In these areas, large-scale translocation of wildlife involves a diversity of species and large populations. The African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) is one of the major tourist attractions in Zambia. It accounts for 8.7% and 12.4% of the total animal species hunted in the Game Management Areas and the total hunting revenue earned in Zambia, respectively. It is ecologically an important animal species essential for the purpose of habitat control and facilitating the provision of suitable grazing pastures. However, the rearing of the African buffalo on game ranches has been hampered by its carrier state of the Southern Africa Terroritory (SAT) serotypes of foot and mouth disease virus (FMD). The African buffalo is also known to be a carrier of Theileria parva lawrencei, the causative agent of corridor disease (CD) that continues to have devastating effects on the livestock industry in Zambia. In addition, the importation of buffaloes from countries with populations endemic to bovine tuberculosis is highly restricted. Veterinary regulations in Zambia, strongly advocate against the translocation of buffaloes from protected areas to private ranches for disease control purposes thereby mounting a considerable constraint on the economic and ecological viability of the industry. It is hoped that this review will motivate the relevant government authorities in exploiting ways in which this animal species play a central role in eco-tourism